By ASMA ABDULLAH and LRONG LIM                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                                                      
IN a recent article entitled "Local version of cultural capital"                                                                                      
(MIM Speaks, Dec 2, 2001), the focus on particularism in                                                                                              
management studies was highlighted. Management ideas and                                                                                              
practices developed by people of a particular culture are not                                                                                         
always applicable across, cultures As they are value-driven and                                                                                       
may not be supported by those from another culture with                                                                                               
differing values. In fact, many scholars have criticised the                                                                                          
bulk of management literature for attempting to enforce a                                                                                             
Western value orientation in many international business                                                                                              
practices.                                                                                                                                            
                                                                                                                                                      
To throw more light on this line of thinking, a survey was                                                                                            
conducted on the cultural dimensions and their influence on                                                                                           
managerial behaviour. The six continua which have a significant                                                                                       
impact on how Malaysians think, feet and act are as follows:                                                                                          
                                                                                                                                                      
* Relationship-task-this measures the importance placed on                                                                                            
relationships with employees versus task accomplishments                                                                                              
                                                                                                                                                      
* Shame-guilt-this verifies if shame which is outer driven or                                                                                         
guilt which is inner driven is the principle that guides                                                                                              
behaviours                                                                                                                                            
                                                                                                                                                      
* We-I-this measures the preference, for interdependence with                                                                                         
other people                                                                                                                                          
                                                                                                                                                      
* Religious-secular-this verifies the degree to which                                                                                                 
religiosity, as opposed to secularity, is considered, in                                                                                              
managerial issues                                                                                                                                     
                                                                                                                                                      
* Hierarchy-equality-this gauges the emphasis placed on rank,                                                                                         
status and other ascribed attributes over equality issues                                                                                             
                                                                                                                                                      
* High context-low context communication-this, measures the                                                                                           
extent to which cultures depend on the context (external                                                                                              
environment, situation, nonverbal signs) to communicate.                                                                                              
                                                                                                                                                      
Generally, it was found that Malaysians differ significantly                                                                                          
from Anglos, (mainly Americans, British and Canadians) and                                                                                            
Australians. The inter-group results were consistent with                                                                                             
expectations. Compared with the Anglos and Australians,                                                                                               
Malaysians tend to emphasise relationships over tasks, feelings                                                                                       
of shame over feelings of guilt, we over I orientation,                                                                                               
religiosity, over secularity, hierarchy over equality, and                                                                                            
high-context communication over low-context communication. These                                                                                      
inter-group differences were highly pronounced in the                                                                                                 
religiosity, relationship, and collectivism dimensions - all                                                                                          
three Malaysian groups differed significantly from the                                                                                                
non-Malaysian groups.                                                                                                                                 
                                                                                                                                                      
The Malaysian Chinese and Indians, however, differed                                                                                                  
significantly from the Anglos but not from the Australians in                                                                                         
the hierarchy dimension. Furthermore, the Chinese and the                                                                                             
Indians did not differ significantly from the, Anglos and the                                                                                         
Australians in the mode of communication.                                                                                                             
                                                                                                                                                      
The Malays on the other hand, differed from the Anglos and the                                                                                        
Australians in both the hierarchy and communication dimensions.                                                                                       
                                                                                                                                                      
The intra-group analysis revealed that the Anglos and the                                                                                             
Australians did not differ significantly in all the six                                                                                               
dimensions. However, there is one significant difference among                                                                                        
the Malaysian groups. The Chinese and Indian groups were found                                                                                        
to have a much lower emphasis on religiosity than the Malays do.                                                                                      
                                                                                                                                                      
In summary, the Malays differed most significantly from the                                                                                           
Anglos and the Australians. The Chinese and the Indians differed                                                                                      
from the Anglos and the Australians too, but to a less marked                                                                                         
extent. This is especially clear for the religious dimension,                                                                                         
whereby the Malays differed significantly from not only the                                                                                           
Anglos and the Australians, but also from the Chinese and the                                                                                         
Indians. The Chinese and the Indians have little difference                                                                                           
between themselves, just like the Anglos and the Australians do.                                                                                      
                                                                                                                                                      
Based on these findings, we can conclude that Western management                                                                                      
theories and practices developed in the Anglo-American context                                                                                        
may, not be suitable for application in the Malaysian                                                                                                 
environment without modifications.                                                                                                                    
                                                                                                                                                      
Therefore, we have to be aware that the mental modes of                                                                                               
Malaysian managers are different from their counterparts from                                                                                         
another cultural background, especially in cultures which are                                                                                         
less individualistic, shame-driven, hierarchical oriented,                                                                                            
religious-centred, high context, and relationship-focused with                                                                                        
harmony seeking behaviours.                                                                                                                           
                                                                                                                                                      
What are some implications to consider in describing managerial                                                                                       
practices, developing leadership skills and managing change in                                                                                        
Malaysian-based organisations?                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                                                      
* Firstly, there is a need for local academia and management                                                                                          
practitioners to decode the Malaysian epistemology in the                                                                                             
context of organisations in the local setting. To substantiate                                                                                        
any form of quantitative research, they may have to also use                                                                                          
"emic" (locally developed) tools of participant observation                                                                                           
study how individual managers articulate their roles, make                                                                                            
decisions, solve problems and relate with others. A more                                                                                              
"particularistic" brand of management "recipe" ala Malaysia                                                                                           
could be include in their teaching and or training agenda.                                                                                            
                                                                                                                                                      
*Secondly, Malaysian managers could benefit from their own                                                                                            
interpretation of the culture of social organisations, in light                                                                                       
of the advanced made in information technology.                                                                                                       
                                                                                                                                                      
In striving for greater homogeneity of basic human values,                                                                                            
tastes and behaviour what is much needed is a model of local                                                                                          
that has to be reconceptualised and aligned with global values                                                                                        
of speed, flexibility, integration, innovation, customer focus,                                                                                       
and productivity.                                                                                                                                     
                                                                                                                                                      
In fact, there has to be a clarification of the universal values                                                                                      
like efficiency, humanity and integrity, which are valid in all                                                                                       
cultural settings but articulated in many different ways.                                                                                             
                                                                                                                                                      
* Finally, Malaysian managers may find it necessary to do their                                                                                       
own "cultural surgery" by discarding behaviours that are an                                                                                           
extreme interpretation of their values if perceived to be                                                                                             
dysfunctional.                                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                                                      
The over-emphasis on relationship, shame, practice of not                                                                                             
wanting to give and receive feedback for fear of causing                                                                                              
disharmony, too much emphasis on hierarchical relationships, and                                                                                      
a tendency to wait to be told by superiors, have to be                                                                                                
downplayed. Perhaps the challenge for all of us is to harness                                                                                         
the values of group preference, shame-driven, hierarchical                                                                                            
orientation and a religious outlook to enhance high performance                                                                                       
teamwork, effective task completion, a competitive mindset and a                                                                                      
highly ethical conduct.                                                                                                                               
                                                                                                                                                      
Change can be made more meaningful when there is an attempt to                                                                                        
examine our own particular "software programming and operating                                                                                        
system" as we move forward.                                                                                                                           
                                                                                                                                                      
It is only when we learn to recognise the roots from which we've                                                                                      
grown that we can anchor our new behaviours to what we most                                                                                           
revere. While our roots cannot be removed or changed, we can                                                                                          
modify the soil, change the fertiliser or climate and even prune                                                                                      
its branches to evolve our own unique cultural capital in                                                                                             
management development.                                                                                                                               
                                                                                                                                                      
Our response to particularism must be one that will allow us to                                                                                       
assimilate aspects of globalisation to enrich our way of life                                                                                         
and at the same time be able to preserve our cultures from being                                                                                      
erased by the homogenising forces of global capitalism.                                                                                               
                                                                                                                                                      
Dr Asma Abdullah is a human resource development specialist in                                                                                        
an American multinational based in Kuala Lumpur and an                                                                                                
author/editor of Understanding the Malaysian Workforce:                                                                                               
Guidelines for Managers Revised edition (published by MIM). Dr                                                                                        
Lrong Lim is Associate Professor, Department of Business                                                                                              
Administration, Kagawa University, Japan.