By Professor CHIN YEW SIN

The concept of management has advanced over time, from the early
schools of management thought to contemporary management
perspectives today. Just as management theories have been
proposed in the past and refined in present times, it is highly
likely that more will emerge in future.

Management is a field of study that not only refers to a
function, position or rank but also the people who discharge
that function. It encompasses activities that managers in
organisations conduct and/or skills that managers employ in
performing their duties.

The following is a brief overview of the different eras of
management philosophy which have dominated mainstream management
thought.


Ancient Management Thoughts

History reveals that the term "management" was not specifically
used until the late 19th century. Nevertheless, approximately
2,500 years ago, a Chinese general known as Sun Tzu authored Sun
Tzu's Art of War. In that book, Sun Tzu identified the
requirements for inter-organisational communication, hierarchy
and staff planning - all of which are essential activities in
management. Furthermore, two eminent Greek philosophers Socrates
and Aristotle propounded the principles of management and the
nature of executive power. Much later in 1532, Machiavelli of
Italy authored a book titled The Prince which promulgated the
practical, though somewhat controversial, use of power.

Classical Management Theories

In the 1700s during the Industrial Revolution era, there arose a
breed of new management writers, notably from Europe and the
United States of America, who upheld the classical management
viewpoint that control can be attained via reasoning and
science. The subsequent decades also saw various other
management approaches being proposed by different writers and
researchers.

In the early 1900s, different writers advocated principles that
would guide managers to establish the formal structure of
organisations and how to administer organisations in a rational
manner. To summarise, "classical management theory" is a
collective term for a set of ideas which were proposed by
individuals such as Henri Fayol who came from various
backgrounds in different countries. In other words, this theory
assumes a universal approach which is driven by the search for
higher productivity, establishment of work standards, formal
managerial training and functional organisation. Classical
management thinking tends to view a worker as being motivated
mainly by monetary rewards.

The well-known classical management concept of bureaucracy was
submitted by Max Weber. Weber's bureaucratic form of
organisation consists of characteristics such as rules,
hierarchy, specialisation, impersonality and appointed
officials. Bureaucracy permits a great deal of administration
precision and predictability.

Another classical management theory, scientific management, was
put forth by Frederick W. Taylor. Scientific management has a
great impact on organisational practice, with the aim to enhance
efficiency by prudently planning workers' movements in the most
efficient manner, efficient motions, efficient tools, optimum
working arrangements and rewarding financial incentives.

Human Relations Theories

Human relations theories are significantly distinctive from the
classical management theories. The former are based on the
belief that organisations could be made more efficient and
productive through better human relations between the management
and its staff. Elton Mayo believed that managers must not only
be concerned with the economic motivation of employees but at
the same time, must also take care of their needs for social
acceptance, belonging and identity so as to enrich their scope
of jobs and make them more satisfied with their jobs.

On the other hand, McGregor's Theories X and Y take cognisance
of the complexity and potential of human beings, while Abraham
Maslow's motivation theory outlines human needs at work which
comprise physiological, security, love of belonging,
self-esteemed and self-actualisation needs.

Contemporary Management Theories

Amongst all the contemporary management theories, there are
three approaches which merit special discussion, namely Systems
Theory, Contingency View and Total Quality Management.

Systems theory.  In recent times, efforts have been focused on
the analysis of organisations as "systems" with a number of
interconnected sub-systems. The classical management approach
had focused so much on the technical requirements of
organisations that Bennis (1959) called it "organisations
without people". On the other hand, the human relations
approach's strong emphasis on the psychology of human needs
prompted Bennis (1959) to dub it "people without organisations".
The systems approach strives to reconcile these two management
approaches.

Contingency view. The contingency approach has been applied in
recent times to substitute simplistic principles of management
and at the same time, to integrate many management theories.
This approach maintains that there is no single best way to
manage at all times. There is no singular universally applicable
approach, but different circumstances require different
approaches.

Total quality management.  Of late, there has been a quality
revolution occurring in both the private and public sectors.
Total quality management expands the term "customer" beyond the
traditional definition to comprise everybody associated with the
organisation, either internally or externally including
employees and suppliers as well as customers. The aim is to
establish an organisation committed to continuous improvement or
kaizen.


Future Management Perspective

We are now witnessing the emergence of a new economy that is
based on information and knowledge. It is characterised by the
process of globalisation, technological upheavals in the areas
of ICT, growth and decline among job seekers, workforce
diversity, changing societal expectations, a new work
environment, a new entrepreneurial spirit, more demanding
customers and quality consciousness. The manager of the future
is expected to encounter the challenges posed by these new
developments. Therefore, there is a need for a new breed of
managers with multi-skills who are able to fulfill all their
managerial roles pursuant to the requirements of the
circumstance so as to deal with these challenges.
          
In addition, the task of management is to take cognisance of the
emerging trends, re-engineer to exploit their full potential and
put into action both strategic and tactical plans to take
advantage of these new opportunities. Hence, it is anticipated
that future management trends will shift towards knowledge
management, global management as well as change management.

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The author is a Malaysian and a visiting Professor of Zhongshan
University, Guangzhou, China and the CEO of Oriental Strategy
Research Centre. He can be contacted at yschin@mailcity.com.